Cerebral baylisascariosis in a rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus moluccanus) in a German Zoo.

BACKGROUND: The raccoon roundworm, Baylisascaris procyonis, can cause a meningoencephalitis as neural larva migrans which is known in avian species, including rainbow lorikeets in North America, but has not been described in Old World parrots in Germany yet. CASE PRESENTATION: A 2-month-old, male rainbow lorikeet from a zoo in Germany was submitted for necropsy. Prior to death the animal had progressive neurological signs like apathy and torticollis. In the cerebrum a focally extensive severe granulomatous to necrotizing encephalitis with an intralesional larval nematode was diagnosed. Based on the clinical and pathological findings, the larval morphology and the epidemiological background, the larva was identified as Baylisascaris procyonis. CONCLUSIONS: Cerebral baylisascariosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis in zoo and pet birds with neurological signs having contact to racoons or rather racoon faeces in Germany due to the high prevalence of Baylisascaris procyonis in the German raccoon population.

Sand fly-borne diseases in Europe: epidemiological overview and potential triggers for their emergence and re-emergence.

Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Phlebotominae) are vectors of human and animal pathogens, including Leishmania species protozoan parasites and viruses of the genus Phlebovirus. In Europe, visceral zoonotic leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania infantum, a deadly disease when left untreated, is endemic in southern countries, and dogs are the main reservoir hosts for human infection. Most phleboviruses cause asymptomatic infections or flu-like syndromes in humans, but Toscana phlebovirus can cause meningitis and encephalitis. These diseases are likely to re-emerge, posing a growing threat to public and animal health. Potential triggers include the movement of humans and dogs, increasing numbers of immunosuppressive conditions, climate change and other human-mediated environmental changes. An overview of the main epidemiological characteristics of the pathogens transmitted by sand flies in Europe and the potential triggers involved in their emergence and re-emergence are reviewed here. There is a need to implement mandatory notification of human and canine leishmaniases and human phleboviruses and coordinated epidemiological surveillance programmes at a European level, and to raise awareness among healthcare professionals and citizens about sand fly-borne diseases, following a One Health approach.

Toxoplasma gondii Infection in the Eurasian Beaver (Castor fiber) in Switzerland: Seroprevalence, Genetic Characterization, and Clinicopathologic Relevance.

Toxoplasma gondii is a coccidian parasite able to infect all warm-blooded animals and humans. Rodents are one of the most important intermediate hosts for T. gondii, but little is known about infection in beavers and its clinical relevance. Toxoplasmosis was not considered an important waterborne disease until recently, but with increased outbreaks in humans and animals this perspective has changed. Serum samples from 247 Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) collected from 2002 to 2022 were tested for antibodies to T. gondii by a commercial ELISA. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 113 (45.8%) beavers. Higher weight and proximity to urban areas were found to be significant predictors for seropositivity. Additionally, T. gondii DNA was detected in 23/41 brain tissue samples by real-time PCR. Histopathologic examination of brain sections revealed inflammatory changes in 26/40 beavers, mainly characterized by encephalitis, meningitis, choroid plexitis, or a combination of them. In six of these cases the lesions were in direct association with parasitic stages. With an adapted nested PCR multilocus sequence typing and in silico restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis approach, three different T. gondii genotypes were detected in brain samples: the clonal Type II strain (ToxoDB 1), a Type II variant (ToxoDB 3), and a novel genotype exhibiting both Type II and I alleles in a further animal. Toxoplasma gondii infections in beavers have epidemiologic and clinical significance. The high seroprevalence indicates frequent contact with the parasite, and as competent intermediate hosts they may play an important role, contributing to maintaining the life cycle of T. gondii in semiaquatic habitats. In addition, although most beavers appear to develop subclinical to chronic disease courses, acute and fatal outcomes, mainly characterized by encephalitis and generalized infection, do also occur.

First Swedish case of fatal equine parasitic encephalitis by Halicephalobus gingivalis.

BACKGROUND: Halicephalobus gingivalis is a nematode with zoonotic potential which can cause fatal opportunistic infections in various mammals. The parasite has never been diagnosed in Sweden, in any species, prior to the presented case. CASE PRESENTATION: An imported 21-year-old Icelandic mare developed severe neurological signs. The horse was eventually euthanized and submitted for post-mortem examination where severe lesions in the kidneys were noted. Histopathology revealed the presence of H. gingivalis in both kidneys and the brain. Phylogenetic analysis of the parasite determined it to belong to Lineage 1. CONCLUSIONS: With the occurrence of H. gingivalis in Sweden, the disease should be added to the list of differential diagnoses in cases with acute onset of neurological disease in both horses and other mammals including humans.

Caprine arthritis encephalitis virus-induced apoptosis associated with brain lesions in naturally infected kids.

Acute demyelinating leucoencephalomyelitis was the most conspicuous microscopic change in the brain and spinal cord of kids infected with caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV). TUNEL positivity and labelling of anti-bax and anti-caspases-3, -8 and -9 were found in a distinct population of glial cells, mainly at the edges of the demyelinated plaques and perivascular areas and, to a lesser extent, in neurons. Double labelling revealed that most of these apoptotic cells in the demyelinated plaques were astrocytes and a few were oligodendroglia. In contrast, expression of bcl-2, an anti-apoptotic protein, was found mainly in neurons of the brainstem and cerebellum and motor neurons of the spinal cord, but was restricted in glial cells. These results suggest that apoptosis plays an important role in the pathogenesis of CAE demyelinating encephalitis.

Feline morbillivirus infection associated with fatal encephalitis in a Bengal cat.

Feline morbillivirus (FeMV) is a recently discovered morbillivirus of the family Paramyxoviridae, which include several highly contagious viruses with zoonotic potential. In this case report we describe the detection of FeMV in archived brain tissue of a 2-month-old Bengal cat with nonsuppurative encephalitis from the year 2011 in Switzerland by high-throughput sequencing (HTS). Our metagenomics approach was able to obtain a full-length sequence covering the entire FeMV genome. Phylogenetic analysis showed that our FeMV strain clustered within FeMV genotype 1. We were able to detect FeMV RNA by in situ hybridization (ISH) in brain sections with inflammatory lesions and demonstrated its potential neurotropism and association with encephalitis. Our results provide further insight into this recently discovered morbillivirus and encourage further investigations into the pathogenesis and epidemiology of associated diseases in cats and potentially other species.

Virus discovery in dogs with non-suppurative encephalitis reveals a high incidence of tick-borne encephalitis virus infections in Switzerland.

INTRODUCTION: Viral infections are a frequent cause of disseminated non-suppurative encephalitis in dogs. However, using routine diagnostic methods, the specific virus may remain unknown due to extensive or complete viral clearance or because the virus is unexpected or new. A metatranscriptomics-based approach of combining high-throughput sequencing (HTS) and bioinformatics analysis was used to investigate the viral etiology in archival cases of dogs with non-suppurative encephalitis. In formalin-fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) brain material from the years 1976 to 2021 a high incidence of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) was detected. Moreover, canine distemper virus (CDV) was identified without typical demyelinating lesions and canine vesivirus (CaVV) was detected as an unexpected virus associated with non-suppurative encephalitis. We demonstrated the viral presence in brain tissues at the sites of inflammation by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH). These results highlight the value of emerging sequencing technologies in veterinary diagnostics and expand our knowledge on the etiologies of encephalitis in dogs.

INTRODUCTION: Les infections virales sont une cause fréquente d'encéphalite non suppurée disséminée chez le chien. Cependant, en utilisant les méthodes de diagnostic de routine, le virus spécifique peut rester inconnu en raison d'une clairance virale importante ou complète ou parce que le virus est inattendu ou nouveau. Une approche métatranscriptomique combinant le séquençage à haut débit et l'analyse bioinformatique a été utilisée pour étudier l'étiologie virale dans des cas archivés de chiens atteints d'encéphalite non suppurée. Une incidence élevée du virus de l'encéphalite à tiques (TBEV) a été détectée dans le matériel cérébral fixé au formol et inclus dans la paraffine (FFPE) des années 1976 à 2021. En outre, le virus de la maladie de Carré (CDV) a été identifié sans lésions démyélinisantes typiques et le vésivirus canin (CaVV) a été détecté comme un virus inattendu associé à une encéphalite non suppurative. Nous avons démontré la présence virale dans les tissus cérébraux au niveau des sites d'inflammation par immunohistochimie (IHC) et hybridation in situ (ISH). Ces résultats soulignent la valeur des technologies de séquençage émergentes dans le diagnostic vétérinaire et élargissent nos connaissances sur les étiologies de l'encéphalite chez les chiens.

Cook Inlet beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas with valvular endocarditis, encephalitis, rhabdomyolysis, heavy parasitism and fungal dermatitis.

This is a case report of a Cook Inlet beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas found dead stranded on September 28, 2020 in Turnagain Arm, Alaska. This subadult male had valvular endocarditis, encephalitis, rhabdomyolysis, myoglobinuric nephropathy, severe parasitism and fungal dermatitis. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was detected in the heart lesion, eye and external swabs. The level of infection and parasitism in this individual is markedly higher than what has been found in other Cook Inlet belugas, suggesting immunosuppression.

Risk factors associated with outcome in goats with encephalitic listeriosis: A retrospective study of 36 cases from 2008 to 2021.

BACKGROUND: There exists a scarcity of information on risk factors associated with case outcomes in goats diagnosed with encephalitic listeriosis. OBJECTIVE: Evaluate risk factors associated with outcomes in 36 cases of suspected encephalitic listeriosis in goats presented to a referral hospital. ANIMALS: Thirty-six goats (26 does, 7 bucks, and 3 wethers) were presented to Auburn University Large Animal Teaching Hospital between 2008 and 2021 for treatment of neurologic disease diagnosed as encephalitic listeriosis based on any combination of clinical signs, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) analysis, or postmortem examination. METHODS: Retrospective study. Data were analyzed as binary and under a proportional odds model. The medical records were searched for presumptive encephalitic listeriosis in goats between 2008 and 2021. Data collected included signalment (sex, age, and breed), history, clinical signs, temperature, and ability to stand at presentation. Final diagnosis, CSF results, all treatments, outcomes, and results of necropsy were also collected for analysis. RESULTS: Male goats were 14 (95% CI: 1.98-166.0) times more likely to be a non-survivor compared to females despite being presented with similar history, clinical signs, and treatments. Animals presented with circling or a history of circling were 6.24 (95% CI: 1.40-23.21) times more likely to be a survivor than a non-survivor. Other risk factors evaluated were not significantly associated with outcomes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Few risk factors were associated with outcomes. Duration of clinical signs, antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory choices, or CSF results were not associated with outcome. Only sex and history or presence of circling were associated with case outcomes.

Curcumin-dependent phenotypic transformation of microglia mediates resistance to pseudorabies-induced encephalitis.

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) causes viral encephalitis, a devastating disease with high mortality worldwide. Curcumin (CUR) can reduce inflammatory damage by altering the phenotype of microglia; however, whether and how these changes mediate resistance to PRV-induced encephalitis is still unclear. In this study, BV2 cells were infected with/without PRV for 24 h and further treated with/without CUR for 24 h. The results indicated that CUR promoted the polarization of PRV-infected BV2 cells from the M1 phenotype to the M2 phenotype and reversed PRV-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, M1 BV2 cell secretions induced signalling pathways leading to apoptosis in PC-12 neuronal cells, and this effect was abrogated by the secretions of M2 BV2 cells. RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis predicted that this phenotypic shift may be due to changes in energy metabolism. Furthermore, Western blot analysis showed that CUR inhibited the increase in AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation, glycolysis, and triacylglycerol synthesis and the reduction in oxidative phosphorylation induced by PRV infection. Moreover, the ATP levels in M2 BV2 cells were higher than those in M1 cells. Furthermore, CUR prevented the increase in mortality, elevated body temperature, slowed growth, nervous system excitation, brain tissue congestion, vascular cuffing, and other symptoms of PRV-induced encephalitis in vivo. Thus, this study demonstrated that CUR protected against PRV-induced viral encephalitis by switching the phenotype of BV2 cells, thereby protecting neurons from inflammatory injury, and this effect was mediated by improving mitochondrial function and the AMPK/NF-κB p65-energy metabolism-related pathway.

A feline model of spontaneously occurring autoimmune limbic encephalitis.

Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) is an important cause of encephalitis in humans and occurs at a similar rate to infectious encephalitis. It is frequently associated with antibodies against the extracellular domain of neuronal proteins. Among human AE, that with antibodies against leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 (LGI1) is one of the most prevalent forms, and was recently described in cats with limbic encephalitis (LE). In this study, we describe a large cohort (n = 32) of cats with AE, tested positive for voltage gated potassium channel (VGKC)-antibodies, of which 26 (81%) harboured LGI1-antibodies. We delineate their clinical and paraclinical features as well as long-term outcomes up to 5 years. Similar to human cases, most cats with LGI1-antibodies had a history of focal seizures (83%), clustering in the majority (88%), with interictal behavioural changes (73%). Among feline AE patients, there was no seizure type or other clinical characteristic that could distinguish LGI1-antibody positive from negative cats, unlike the pathognomic faciobrachial dystonic seizures seen in humans. Although six cats were euthanased in the first year for epilepsy-associated reasons, those attaining at least 1-year survival had good seizure control and quality of life with appropriate veterinary care and medication. Acute-phase immunotherapy (prednisolone) was given to the most severely unwell cases and its effect is retrospectively evaluated in 10 cats. Our data show LGI1-antibodies are an important cause of feline encephalitis, sharing many features with human AE. Further research should examine optimal therapeutic management strategies and the cause of LE in seronegative cats, building on paradigms established in the counterpart human disease.

Prevention of fatal equine herpesvirus type 1 encephalitis in mice by immunization with a limited-replication cycle virus.

Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a devastating pathogen of horses, their natural hosts, and causes fatal encephalitis in non-natural hosts. We previously demonstrated that acylation of the tegument protein UL11 is required for viral replication in cultured cells. We created a mutant virus (EHV-1 UL12 trunc UL11 G2AC7AC9A), in which glycyl and cysteinyl residues at positions 2, 7 and 9 of UL11 that are normally acylated were replaced with alanyl residues. This virus, designated the 2/7/9 mutant, has a limited-replication cycle (LRC), in which replication stops after just a few cycles. Here, we tested whether the 2/7/9 mutant could be used as a vaccine against fatal encephalitis in a mouse model. A virulence test showed that the 2/7/9 mutant was not pathogenic in mice and elicited an antibody response. We also attempted to use the 2/7/9 mutant to immunize mice against a zebra-borne EHV-1, 94-137. Two trials were conducted, each with five immunized mice, five non-immunized and five control mice. In both trials, clinical signs and fatalities were much lower in the immunized mice than in the non-immunized mice. In addition, none of the mice in either trial developed neutralizing antibodies, indicating that the immunity induced by the 2/7/9 mutant was not due to neutralizing activity. The results indicate that the 2/7/9 LRC mutant has promise as a vaccine against EHV-1 infection non-natural hosts.

European College of Equine Internal Medicine consensus statement on equine flaviviridae infections in Europe.

Horses and other equids can be infected with several viruses of the family Flaviviridae, belonging to the genus Flavivirus and Hepacivirus. This consensus statement focuses on viruses with known occurrence in Europe, with the objective to summarize the current literature and formulate clinically relevant evidence-based recommendations regarding clinical disease, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. The viruses circulating in Europe include West Nile virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Usutu virus, Louping ill virus and the equine hepacivirus. West Nile virus and Usutu virus are mosquito-borne, while tick-borne encephalitis virus and Louping ill virus are tick-borne. The natural route of transmission for equine hepacivirus remains speculative. West Nile virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus can induce encephalitis in infected horses. In the British Isle, rare equine cases of encephalitis associated with Louping ill virus are reported. In contrast, equine hepacivirus infections are associated with mild acute hepatitis and possibly chronic hepatitis. Diagnosis of flavivirus infections is made primarily by serology, although cross-reactivity occurs. Virus neutralization testing is considered the gold standard to differentiate between flavivirus infections in horses. Hepacivirus infection is detected by serum or liver RT-PCR. No direct antiviral treatment against flavi- or hepacivirus infections in horses is currently available and thus, treatment is supportive. Three vaccines against West Nile virus are licensed in the European Union. Geographic expansion of flaviviruses pathogenic for equids should always be considered a realistic threat, and it would be beneficial if their detection was included in surveillance programs.

Parallel roles of neuroinflammation in feline and human epilepsies.

Autoimmune encephalitis refers to a group of disorders characterised by a non-infectious encephalitis, often with prominent seizures and surface neuronal autoantibodies. AE is an important cause of new-onset refractory status epilepticus in humans and is frequently responsive to immunotherapies including corticosteroids, plasma exchange, intravenous immunoglobulin G and rituximab. Recent research suggests that parallel autoantibodies can be detected in non-human mammalian species. The best documented example is leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 (LGI1)-antibodies in domestic cats with limbic encephalitis (LE). In this review, we discuss the role of neuroinflammation and autoantibodies in human and feline epilepsy and LE.

The first evidence of shaking mink syndrome-astrovirus associated encephalitis in farmed minks, China.

A novel neurological disorder, shaking mink syndrome (SMS), emerged in Denmark and Sweden in 2000. SMS has seldom been reported in China, but the causative agent has not been detected in the country. SMS outbreaks occurred in multiple provinces in 2020. A total of 44 brain samples from minks associated with SMS were collected from Heilongjiang, Liaoning and Shandong provinces of which 28 samples (63.3%) were SMS-astrovirus (SMS-AstV)-positive by reverse transcription PCR. Histopathological examination revealed non-suppurative encephalitis in three minks. Moreover, the complete coding region sequences (CDSs, 6559 bp) of a sample collected from a 2-month-old mink (termed SMS-AstV-H1, GSA accession No. SAMC816786) were amplified by PCR and Sanger sequencing. The complete CDS and open reading frame 2 sequences of SMS-AstV-H1 were 94.3% and 96.4% identical to an SMS-AstV strain (GenBank accession number: GU985458). Phylogenetically, SMS-AstV-H1 was closely related to an SMS-AstV strain (GU985458). Based on the above results, we describe SMS-AstV-associated encephalitis in farmed minks in China. Future studies need to focus on epidemiology, virus isolation and potential interspecies transmission of SMS-AstV.

Brain and pituitary-adrenal lesions of Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense infections in the West African Dwarf rams: Is trypanotolerance overrated?

Trypanosomosis of the West African Dwarf (WAD) sheep is often neglected due to emphasis on trypanotolerance. Nevertheless, significant pathological changes may occur in tissues of infected WAD sheep. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the brain, pituitary, and adrenal lesions of Trypanosoma brucei brucei (Tbb) and Trypanosoma congolense (Tc) infections in WAD rams. Fifteen WAD rams were infected intraperitoneally with Tbb or Tc (106 trypanosomes/animal) or were uninfected controls (5 rams per group). Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol were assayed in serum by enzyme immunoassay technique. The brain, pituitary, and adrenal glands were processed for histopathology. Serum ACTH levels of infected rams were significantly (P < .05) higher than that of controls on days 14 and 70 post infection (PI). Serum cortisol levels of infected rams were significantly (P < .05) higher than that of controls only on day 14 PI. Mortality was 60% in Tbb- and 40% in Tc-infected rams. The brain of the infected groups showed chromatolysis of cortical neurons and Purkinje cells with severe encephalitis. Degenerative, necrotic, and inflammatory changes were seen in the pituitary and adrenal glands of the infected rams. Adrenal corticomedullary ratio was significantly (P < .05) higher in Tc-infected rams than controls. Based on the high mortality levels, likely due to severe encephalitis, the WAD sheep may not be regarded as trypanotolerant.

Human Encephalitis Caused by Pseudorabies Virus in China: A Case Report and Systematic Review.

Background: Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is a common pathogen found in pigs. The pathogenicity of PRV in humans is under researched and there are few confirmed cases of PRV infections in humans, which has led to a lack of clinical consensus. Methods: We presented a case of viral encephalitis caused by PRV in China. We performed a systematic review of the literature to investigate the clinical features and prognosis of PRV encephalitis and included 12 patients with PRV encephalitis. Results: All the patients had a history of direct or indirect contact with living pigs or pork before the onset of the disease, accompanied by prodromal symptoms, such as fever and headache. They presented with a series of lesions involving the central nervous system (CNS) and respiratory system, such as acute encephalitis syndrome, respiratory failure, retinitis, or endophthalmitis. Conclusions: The differential diagnosis of an acute attack of CNS infection should include PRV encephalitis, which should be diagnosed by a head magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), fundus examination, and cerebrospinal fluid next-generation sequencing. Intravenous immunoglobulin, glucocorticoid, antiviral, and symptomatic support treatment should be administered as early as possible to improve the prognosis.

Evaluation of Intrathecal Injection of Modified Live Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccine in Dogs with Canine Distemper Encephalitis.

The neurological form of canine distemper virus (CDV) infection can occur concurrently with systemic signs or develop following apparent recovery. There are no specific antiviral or immunomodulatory therapies recognized for treatment of CDV infections, and the neurological form typically carries with it a high mortality rate. The intrathecal injection of a modified live Newcastle disease virus vaccine (NDV-MLV) has been proposed for the treatment of the neurological forms of CDV infections. Thirteen dogs confirmed to have canine distemper infections by polymerase chain reaction testing and with neurological signs consistent with CDV infection were treated with an intrathecal injection of NDV-MLV and were scheduled for re-evaluation 3-4 mo later. Six dogs survived to follow-up and four dogs survived long term (>3 yr). Cerebrospinal fluid cytokines were measured and reported. Changes in cerebrospinal fluid cytokines and long-term survival could not be attributed to the intrathecal injection of NDV-MLV, and this therapy cannot be recommended for treatment of dogs with neurological forms of CDV infection.

Revisiting Rustrela Virus: New Cases of Encephalitis and a Solution to the Capsid Enigma.

Rustrela virus (RusV; species Rubivirus strelense) is a recently discovered relative of rubella virus (RuV) that has been detected in cases of encephalitis in diverse mammals. Here, we diagnosed two additional cases of fatal RusV-associated meningoencephalitis in a South American coati (Nasua nasua) and a Eurasian or European otter (Lutra lutra) that were detected in a zoological garden with history of prior RusV infections. Both animals showed abnormal movement or unusual behavior and their brains tested positive for RusV using specific reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and RNA in situ hybridization. As previous sequencing of the RusV genome proved to be very challenging, we employed a sophisticated target-specific capture enrichment with specifically designed RNA baits to generate complete RusV genome sequences from both detected encephalitic animals and apparently healthy wild yellow-necked field mice (Apodemus flavicollis). Furthermore, the technique was used to revise three previously published RusV genomes from two encephalitic animals and a wild yellow-necked field mouse. When comparing the newly generated RusV sequences to the previously published RusV genomes, we identified a previously undetected stretch of 309 nucleotides predicted to represent the intergenic region and the sequence encoding the N terminus of the capsid protein. This indicated that the original RusV sequence was likely incomplete due to misassembly of the genome at a region with an exceptionally high G+C content of >80 mol%. The new sequence data indicate that RusV has an overall genome length of 9,631 nucleotides with the longest intergenic region (290 nucleotides) and capsid protein-encoding sequence (331 codons) within the genus Rubivirus. IMPORTANCE The detection of rustrela virus (RusV)-associated encephalitis in two carnivoran mammal species further extends the knowledge on susceptible species. Furthermore, we provide clinical and pathological data for the two new RusV cases, which were until now limited to the initial description of this fatal encephalitis. Using a sophisticated enrichment method prior to sequencing of the viral genome, we markedly improved the virus-to-background sequence ratio compared to that of standard procedures. Consequently, we were able to resolve and update the intergenic region and the coding region for the N terminus of the capsid protein of the initial RusV genome sequence. The updated putative capsid protein now resembles those of rubella and ruhugu virus in size and harbors a predicted RNA-binding domain that had not been identified in the initial RusV genome version. The newly determined complete RusV genomes strongly improve our knowledge of the genome structure of this novel rubivirus.